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INSTRUCTIONS IN AVIATION 
FOR BEGINNERS 

— BY — 

O. W. THOMAS 










INSTRUCTIONS IN AVIATION 


FOR BEGINNERS 

— BY — 

O. W. THOMAS 

n 



COPYRIGHT 1915 

— BY — 


THE THOMAS SCHOOL OF AVIATION, Inc. 

ITHACA, N. Y. 





















INTRODUCTION 



With the aeroplane of the present day speedy travel is pos¬ 
sible with a high degree of safety. 

The risks taken by the average drivers of automobiles, motor¬ 
cycles and speed boats travelling at 50 m. p. h. are in many cases 
greater than those taken by an aviator travelling at the same or 
even higher speeds; firstly, because the average automobile or 
motorcycle owner is not in the habit of travelling at these speeds, 
and secondly, because the surface and bends of the average road 
combined with the effects of traffic and “skiddy” surfaces posi¬ 
tively forbid such a speed being held continuously. 

In the case of the speed boat the risks are about the same in 
rough weather. Except in the case of the aviator, the average 
driver can gradually work up to the 50 m. p. h. gait with the aid 
of his skill and general experience. If he is unlucky or clumsy 
his new experience may come to be expensive. 

In the case of the aeroplane the same general points hold good 
with the exception that the would-be aviator must thoroughly 
acquaint himself with nature of the atmosphere and the new pro¬ 
cesses of “starting”, flying and landing before undertaking his 
first flight alone. These are new sensations which must be ac¬ 
quired byexperience. The science of flight is similar to the sci¬ 
ence of electricity, for it depends upon the knowledge of the laws 
governing an invisible fluid and these laws must be absolutely 
adhered to. The poorly instructed electrical engineer runs equal 
risks of accident with the uninstructed flier who plunges into an 
unexplored element with which he has neglected to acquaint him¬ 
self. 

For these reasons it is absolutely necessary that the embryonic 
aviator should be instructed both technically and practically. 

The following pages contain briefly and in a general way what 
every aviator must know, but by no means form a complete 
treatise on the science of aviation, but rather a series of beacons 
pointing out the way and giving the necessary warnings. 

By the Author. 


JUN 28 1916 


28 Nl? 


THE AEROPLANE 


The essential parts of the aeroplane are: 

1. The undercarriage or running gear 

2. The fuselage or nacelle 

3. The planes 

4. The power plant 

5. The controls 

1. The function of the running gear is to support the weight 
of the aeroplane, fuel and passengers and to enable this total mass 
to attain its flying speed on the ground before rising into the air 
and to reduce the shock when landing. As an aeroplane has to 
rise from and land on Very rough ground, this part of the mechan¬ 
ism is subjected to severe strains, for instance when beginners 
are making their practice flights and make poor landings. The 
most common strains are produced by 

A. Slowing down the aeroplane too much before reach¬ 
ing the ground, thereby losing too much sustentation and 
eventually dropping the last few feet to earth. 

B. Landing in a sideways direction, that is, not having 
the centre line of the fuselage in the line of flight, which has 
the effect of rolling the tires off the wheels and buckling the 
latter; in exaggerated cases the running gear is damaged in 
part or in total. 

C. Landing across wind which has the same effect as in 
(B), during which process the lee wing is thrown against the 
ground and the windward wing blown up, with the result 
that the machine pivots about the low wing and the rest of 
the machine swings about this point, culminating in a serious 
wreck. Landing “across wind" must always be avoided. 

D. Landing “down wind” which throws no excessive 
strain on the running gear, but should be avoided in gusty 
winds and where there is not ample space in which to pull up. 

E. Landing at too steep an angle with the ground. 
This has the effect of throwing the machine into the air again 
or even turning it completely over onto its back. The strains 
in both cases may be severe and result generally in damage. 

F. Landing against the wind the strains are the abso¬ 
lute minimum, and therefore landings should always be made 
in this way. 



2. The fuselage or nacelle serves as a foundation for the 
power plant and carries the accupants, control levers and instru¬ 
ments and forms an integral part with the running gear; in it is 
concentrated the greatest part of the load. 

The rear end of the fuselage carries the elevator and rudder 
and generally a tail skid, which serves as a support when the ma¬ 
chine is at rest. 

In the case of the nacelle the elevator and rudder are carried 
on outriggers. In event of heavy landings the members and joints 
of the fuselage may become crippled or the engine and fuel tanks 
may be loosened on their beds. 

3. The planes are attached rigidly to the fuselage and carry 
the total weight during flight. Their function is to produce an 
upward pressure during normal flight equal to the total load. 
Should this pressure decrease for any reason the aeroplane will 
descend and vice versa. 

During normal flight in still weather the strain on the planes 
and bracing is a minimum. While making very sharp turns, steep 
dives especially, or any sudden evolution or flying in very gusty 
weather, the strains may be as high as 10 times those during nor¬ 
mal flight. It must be realized that such strains are transmitted 
in the same proportion to every part of the planes, their bracing 
and the fuselage. 

4. The motor, propeller and fuel tanks constitute the life of 
the aeroplane and the aviator depends upon their perfect coop¬ 
eration for sustained flight. In the modern aeroplane the motor 
develops from 25% to 50% more power than is actually necessary 
for normal flight. This excess of power is provided for rising from 
rough ground or water, for flying against strong head winds and 
for rapid climbing, and allows the motor to run throttled during 
normal flight which has the further advantage of economizing fuel 
and prolonging the life of the motor. 

The propeller is virtually a rotating plane and depends for its 
satisfactory performance on being perfectly balanced. Generally 
it is direct coupled to the crankshaft of the motor. 

5. The controls serve to steer the aeroplane on the ground 
and during flight. The area and angular movements of the con¬ 
trolling surfaces are amply large to meet any emergency and con¬ 
sequently when flying under average conditions only small move¬ 
ments of these are necessary to produce the desired results. 


INSPECTION 


In connection with the aeroplane this forms an integral part 
of the aviator’s training. 

There is not a single example of a swiftly moving vehicle 
which is not rigorously and regularly inspected by those who are 
responsible for its performance. 

The most familiar examples are the locomotive engineer, the 
chief engineer of any ocean going craft, the automobile racer, the 
engineer of the central power station, etc., etc. All these men 
know positively that their machine is RIGHT before they give the 
word to start. 

The same vigilance is required of the aviator. In order to 
fly in peace and comfort he MUST KNOW that his aeroplane and 
motor are in perfect order and will remain so until the flight is 
finished. The duration of a flight should be reckoned as a full 
working day of 8 hours. With a genuine confidence in his ma¬ 
chine the aviator can spend all his time when once in the air in 
piloting the craft and picking out the best course. Inspection 
should be done leisurely and not hurried. 

The best aviators NEVER take anything for granted; they 
look over every single item of their aeroplane personally and thus 
create a well founded confidence. 

Mechanicians are not always infallible and absolute reli- 
ance should not be placed in them, however trustworthy they may 
be. On the other hand any advice which they might tender should 
be carefully weighed before being rejected. 

When an aviator knows his machine thoroughly, he will grad¬ 
ually discover that there are a large number of parts which seldom 
require attention and which may be passed over quickly. Every 
machine has more or less idiosyncrasies of its own and these be¬ 
come in time familiar to the aviator. 

It is difficult to state definitely what portions must be in¬ 
spected. The object of inspection is solely for the purpose of 
knowing whether any parts of the aeroplane have become unreli¬ 
able or dangerous. 

The most important questions which, an aviator should ask 
himself before a flight are the following: 

Are all nuts and turnbuckles tight and locked? . 

Are all nuts holding the maximum length of thread ? 

Is the length of thread engaged in the turnbuckle equal to 
twice the diameter? 


% 

Is the tension of the wiring right? 

Are there any crippled metal or wooden members? 

Are there any “frayed” cables? 

Is the fabric tight, intact and in sound condition? 

Are there any broken ribs or wing spars ? 

Are any members bent or bowed through some wires being 
too short and overstressed ? 

Are the planes, elevator and ailerons in alignment? 

Is everything locked which needs this precaution ? 

Are the gasoline, oil and water connections tight? 

Is the radiator full of water? 

Is the oil tank and crank case filled with oil? 

Is the gasoline tank full ? 

Do the controls work their appointed directions? Do they 
work easily and freely? 

Are the throttle lever and short circuiting switch in proper 
working order? 

Is the engine firing regularly and running up to normal speed ? 
Is the propeller in balance? 

Are the starting and landing grounds large enough and are 
they safe ? 

Am I inwardly calm? If not, I must become so before at¬ 
tempting the flight. 

TRAINING 

The layman’s idea of the word training is confined to the prac¬ 
tice necessary to learn how to start, operate and land an aero¬ 
plane in approved style. 

While it is true that this process is a part of the training, it 
is of relatively minor importance and can be acquired in from 
200 to 300 minutes of flying practice according to the ability of 
the pupil; and here it may be added that slow learner very often 
makes the soundest and safest flyer. The flying practice is done 
under the guidance of a qualified and licensed aviator. 

The most vital part of the training consists of acquiring 
the following habits: 

Estimating horizontal and vertical distances and heights of 
objects. 

Estimating the length of run required over different kinds of 
ground. 

t 

Recognizing the nature of objects as seen from above. 


Observing weather signs and weather conditions and their 
effect upon flight. 

Observing the conditions set np by wind blowing over na¬ 
ture’s obstacles. 

Avoiding localities where it is known that dangerous air cur¬ 
rents exist. 

Observing the effects of sun, earth, water, vegetation and 
clouds on air structure. 

In fact the aviator must get right back to nature. 

While the above list may seem formidable at first sight, the 
average person can sift out from his past experience material 
upon which to build his aeronautical experience. 

The most difficult lesson for most fliers is to learn to keep 
themselves within the limits of their personal experience, and fur¬ 
ther, to be callous to the opinions and criticisms of the public 
which knows little or nothing about their business and should 
therefore be ignored in a polite way. 

LAWS GOVERNING FLIGHT 

The lifting power of an aerofoil (plane) is determined by its 
shape, the angle of incidence or angle at which it passes through 
the air and its speed through the air. 

For example, if the normal flight speed of an aeroplane is 50 
in. p. h. in still air, it follows that should this machine fly with a 
40 m. p. h. wind, its speed relative to the earth is 90 m. p. h. If 
flying against this wind, its speed would only be 10 m. p. li rela¬ 
tive to the earth. Whatever point of view is taken, the aeroplane 
must be “splitting” air at 50 m. p. h. in order to support itself. 

If the speed of an aerofoil remains constant, then the lifting 
power increases roughly in direct proportion to the increase of 
the angle of incidence within the range of angles from 0 degrees 
to 9 degrees. 

P'or example, if an aerofoil lifts 800 lbs. at a speed of 50 m. p. 
h. and an angle of incidence of 6 degrees, then at the same speed 
and an angle of incidence of 9 degrees it will lift roughly 

800x9/6=1200 lbs approximately. 

The power required to lift this extra weight will be some¬ 
what greater than 9/6 times that required to lift 800 lbs. at 6 
degrees. 

Further, if the angle of incidence remains constant and the 
speed increases, then the lifting power increases with the square 
of the speed. 


For example, if the speed of the above aerofoil is increased to 
60 m. p. h. it will lift approximately 

800x60V50 2 =800x3600/2500= 1152 lbs. 

The power required to produce this increase of speed to 60 
in. p. h. will be 60 2 /50 2 or 1.4 times that required at 50 m. p. h. 

The lift of an aerofoil is composed of an upward pressure on 
the lower surface and a partial vacuum over the upper surface 
which produces an upward suction. This suction is about 50% 
greater than the pressure on the under surface. 

In order to produce the lift on an aerofoil a certain amount 
of power must be expended in overcoming the resistance opposing 
forward motion; this resistance is composed of the drift and sur¬ 
face friction. In the aeroplane there is the additional force of 
head resistance which is composed of the resistance of motor, 
fuselage, struts, wires, running gear and passengers. The sum 
total of these resistances is exactly balanced by the propeller thrust. 

Further, every aerofoil has a critical angle beyond which the 
lift ceases to increase in direct proportion with an increase of 
angle of incidence, but on the contrary may either fall off very rap¬ 
idly or remain almost constant during a further increase of the angle 
according to the type of aerofoil. In actual flying it is dangerous 
to attempt to reach this critical angle; firstly, because the lift 
decreases very rapidly, and secondly, because the total resistance 
opposing the forward motion increases in a similar proportion 
which has the immediate effect of slowing the machine down below 
its normal flying speed and thus making recovery a very difficult 
matter even where an excess of power is available. Ordinarily, 
the critical angle occurs at about 12 degrees. In practice the 
angle of incidence during normal flight lies between 2 and 8 de¬ 
grees which leaves a very liberal margin for emergencies and for 
carrying extra weight. 

The movement of the centre of pressure is a question which 
does not seriously affect the performance of the aeroplane under 
the ordinary conditions met with in practice. It moves toward 
the leading edge of the aerofoil with increase of angle of incidence 
and retires toward the trailing edge with increase of speed. The 
movement is small or almost stationary with the modern type of 
aerofoil. 

The general behaviour of the propeller is in all essentials the 
same as that of an aerofoil and depends upon engine revolutions 
to produce the necessary thrust. 

The gliding angle of an aeroplane is that angle at which it 


must be pointed earthwards in order to produce sufficient speed, 
with the power cut off, to give the necessary sustentation. It is 
always slightly greater than the angle of incidence during normal 
flight. If the steepness of the glide is increased the speed of the 
machine increases and vice versa. If a glide is attempted at too 
small an angle the aeroplane will be “stalled’’ in mid-air which 
may have a fatal result. 



The force of gravity is Nature's substitute for a lack of mo¬ 
tive power. In making “pan-cake" landings, that is, landing 
the machine at a very large angle compared with the normal flying 
angle particular care must be exercised not to reach the critical 
angle; the “pan-caking” should only be started when quite near 
the ground. 

The greatest angle at which an aeroplane will climb depends 
upon the amount of excess power available over and above that 
required for normal flight and also upon the load carried. A 
lightly loaded aeroplane with a large excess of power will climb at 
a steeper angle than one heavily loaded and with a small excess of 
power, although the engine in the latter case may be twice as 
powerful as in the first case. 





In actual flying the effects of momentum, inertia, and centri¬ 
fugal force play a very important part. 

Momentum is the quantity of motion of a moving body, that 
is, the product of its mass by its velocity; or, the impetus gained 
by movement. 

Inertia is the property of a body by which it continues in its 
existing state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line, unless 
that state is changed by an external force. 

Centrifugal force is the force exerted by a body while moving 
on a circular or curvilinear path and always acts outward from an 
imaginary centre of rotation. 

Momentum can only be destroyed by a constant resistance 
which opposes motion. Such resistances are, the resistance of 
the air, earth and water, all of which can be usefully used to de¬ 
stroy momentum in their respective spheres. When momentum 
is destroyed the aeroplane is at rest. 

Inertia is a constant force and can only be overcome by an ex¬ 
ternal force. 

Centrifugal force increases as the speed increases and also as 
the turn becomes sharper. During any turning movement the 
aeroplane must be banked at such an angle that the force tending 
to produce a “skid” inward, toward the centre of the turn, is as 
great as the centrifugal force tending to make the aeroplane 
“skid” outward. 

The nature of a force is twofold; it may be a steady j>res- 
sure or a blow and of these the blow causes by far the most severe 
strains. 

For example: A weight of 50 lbs. could be indefinitely sup¬ 
ported by the fabric of an aeroplane wing if laid quietly upon it. 
If, however, it is dropped on to the wing from a height of 50 feet 
it would go through it without much effort. The effect of vicious 
gusts on an aeroplane has the same effect, but naturally less severe. 

AIR STRUCTURE 

It is estimated that the depth of air surrounding the earth is 
about 50 miles. At 15 miles the barometric pressure is about 1 
inch of mercury, and the temperature is probably -60 degrees F. 

The greatest altitude which has been attained in a balloon is 
about 5y 2 miles, at which altitude the barometer reads about 10 
inches and the thermometer between -20 degrees F. and -60 de¬ 
grees F. 


The aeroplane has reached approximately 26000 feet. 

The average aviator can reach 10000 feet with a little prac¬ 
tice, without requiring extra oxygen. Flying at this altitude is 
sometimes troublesome and the temperature may be between 29 
degrees F and 0 degrees F. Even in summer the temperature is 
very low r . 

This low temperature in the upper air stratae is partly pro¬ 
duced by the warm air rising into the less dense air where it ex¬ 
pands. During this process of expansion the temperature falls 
rapidly. On the other hand when the heavier cold air descends 
it is slightly compressed and in consequence is slightly warmed. 

The Fohn wind in the Alpine valleys is known to rise 1 de¬ 
gree for every 200 feet of its descent to the valleys. 

At 10000 feet the barometric pressure is about 20y 2 inches, 
and this means that the aviator can only take in about 2/3 the 
weight of oxygen during every breath as is possible at the earth’s 
surface. Nature compensates for this, by making the lungs work 
faster. 

On days when the barometer is high and the air dry, it is 
found that the motor runs better and the aeroplane Hies with 
greater buoyancy. This fact is of minor importance in the case 
of a machine with an ample reserve of power. 

By far the most important effects are produced by the irreg¬ 
ularities in the strength and in the direction of the wind. An ab¬ 
solutely evenly flowing wind is occasionally found over the sea 
at a height of 100 to 200 feet and also in the upper reaches of the 
atmosphere over land. A fairly steadily flowing wind is also 
found over large tracts of flat country at low altitudes. 

Ordinarily a steady wind at the earth’s surface is found to 
approximately double its strength at an altitude of 400 to 500 feet. 

At certain times of the year, generally during late spring 
and autumn, two cloud layers may be seen going in almost op¬ 
posite directions or even crossing at right angles, w r hiles the sur¬ 
face wind has a different direction according to the nature of the 
obstructions affecting its course. At the point where these dif¬ 
ferent air currents pass each other there is always a region of 
rough air composed of eddies or waves. These waves may meas¬ 
ure as much as half a mile from crest to crest. Cross currents, 
however, exist more or less throughout the year, only they are not 
so noticeable as at the periods just mentioned. 

The unevenness of the air in the lower stratae is chiefly 
caused by the breaking up of the wind by hills, high buildings and 


similar obstructions, causing disturbances in their neighborhood, 
which sometimes are met at a considerable height depending 
upon the strength and direction of the wind. The uneven heating 
of the air over different kinds of landscape lias a further disturb¬ 
ing influence. Irregularities in the flow of air near the ground is 



caused by the hills and valleys which distort the wind from its 
average course; this distortion may be as much as 20% from 
the mean direction. 

Generally speaking, it is found that the air has a tendency 
to flow downward immediately over green vegetable matter and 























water and to rise over bare or ploughed ground or ground covered 
by dry, parched vegetable matter. The extent and fierceness of 
these upward and downward currents depends upon the angle at 
which the sun’s rays strike the surfaces producing these currents. 
If the rays strike perpendicularly the heating effect is a maximum 
and under this condition, upward currents of 20 m. p. h. have been 
met over bare ground and bare hill sides. These currents may ex¬ 
tend over a considerable area or they may be local. Where up¬ 
ward or downward currents exist, turbulent air is invariably pres¬ 
ent where these currents pass through stiller air or where they 
pass currents going in the opposite direction. These vertical 
currents are bent and deflected by the horizontal currents accord¬ 
ing to their strength and direction. 

In mountainous country it is found that, there are generally 
descending currents on the shaded slopes and ascending currents 
on the sunny slopes. The direction of these currents is modified 
by the surface wind prevailing at the time and by the nature of the 
surface of the slopes themselves. When the sun heats moist masses 
of air, violent eddies are set up which rise and become gradually de¬ 
stroyed or-condensed as they reach the colder upper air, where 
they appear as clouds. In summer these clouds generally take 
the form of thunder clouds and are produced on still days when 
there is very little motion of the atmosphere. On days when 
light breezes stir the air, these clouds form just the same, but 
they are white and fleecy in appearance instead of dark and 
solid looking. 

In thundery weather the air between the earth and the higher 
air stratae is in a *very agitated state and it is very difficult to 
control a machine when flying through such air, as it rolls and 
pitches considerably and may even take vertical drops of several 
feet. In addition to these movements the machine will quite 
suddenly oscilliate rapidly sideways, the wing extremities vibrat¬ 
ing viciously. This disturbance is probably due to an eddy of 
small diameter but vicious in character. 

After a heavy shower the air is “straightened out” and be¬ 
comes calm and remains in this condition until wind or other 
agencies cause further disturbances. 

On mornings when the ground is covered with frost, dew or 
mist, there is considerable disturbance in the lower air while the 
sun is evaporating this moisture. The same thing happens with 
mist or fog over water, the disturbances in the latter case being 
generally more violent. 


On bright, clear days considerable difficulty is experienced in 
climbing between or through dense cloud clusters on account of the 
descending currents. Descending currents are also found to some 
extent when flying through shadows cast by dense clouds on clear 
days. 

During certain times in the year, the wind is found to be 
gusty. This pulsation of the wind is a variable quantity and may 
vary more than 30% from its average velocity. 

In squally weather there are alternate periods of dead calm 
and gusts which may be of from 35 to 40 m. p. h. The weather 
reports would define such a wind, as a gusty wind of 20 m. p. h. 
Flying in such winds should only be tackeled by an experienced 
aviator on a good machine. 

In mountainous or hilly country the aviator must be prepared 
to encounter very rough air. If there is wind as well as sunshine 
the would-be horizontal and vertical currents will have very ex¬ 
aggerated directions and will without fail put an aviator in a 
tight corner if he has not sufficient altitude to allow for emerg¬ 
encies. The aeroplane may be forced down as much as 1000 
or 1500 feet at a time without giving the aviator any choice. At 
the next instance he may be carried up vertically for a like dis¬ 
tance only to be brought down again later on. Combined with 
these conditions much difficulty is experienced from gusts coming 
out of gullies. These gusts may be fierce enough to turn the 
machine completely around and leave it temporarily out of control. 

The only way to overcome these difficulties is to fly high 
enough to be out of range of such disturbances. The severity of 
the wind will determine the altitude at which safety may be ex¬ 
pected. The safest way is to make a “round about” journey and 
avoid such country. 

CROSS COUNTRY FLYING 

The main difficulties in flying across country are the follow¬ 
ing: 

Estimating the strength and direction of the wind and 
allowing for the drift. 

Recognizing objects when looking at them from above 
and identifying unfamiliar country from the map. 

Retaining the sense of direction when the earth is hidden 
by clouds, or when flying over large expanses of water out 
of sight of land, or when flying through rain, hail, clouds or 
snow. 


Deciding quickly what portion of the panorama is suit¬ 
able ground to land on in case of motor stopping. 

The difficulty in allowing for drift arises from the fact that 
the strength and direction of the wind varies at different alti¬ 
tudes and over different kinds of surface. When flying against 
a very strong headwind at a considerable altitude it is difficult 
to immediately estimate whether the machine is making headway 
or being blown backwards. When flying with such a wind there 
is always danger of being carried beyond the point at which it is 
desired to land. The direction and force of the surface wind can 
be estimated from smoke, dust, clouds, the motion of trees or grass, 
motion of waves, flags, etc. That of the upper air can only be 
judged by the motion of the clouds; if there are no clouds the 
only way is to ascertain the drift by a trial flight. 

To do this take two given points a known distance apart and 
in the same direction in which the cross country flight is to be 
made. Start from the first point and head the machine straight 
for the second point. In traversing this distance the machine will 
be drifted off its course by a certain amount. When the machine 
is abreast of the second point the distance drifted is estimated. 
The correction in degrees is then obtained from the table for cor¬ 
rection of drift. During a long flight this correction should be 
checked from time to time whenever possible. 

In rough stormy weather during which rain, hail and snow are 
encountered it is very troublesome to steer a true course. Where 
flights are made covering the whole day, it is well to remember 
that the morning wind often blows in a different direction to the 
evening wind. 

When flying over strange country, over water out of sight of 
land, or through or over dense clouds the compass must absolute¬ 
ly be depended upon and too much importance cannot be laid on 
the necessity of carefully estimating the amount of drift before¬ 
hand. The recognition of different kinds of objects and different 
kinds of country becomes, after a little practice, almost instinct¬ 
ive and this is indispensable when consulting the map. 

The best aviation maps are those reduced from the Ordnace 
Surveys and are plotted to a scale of 2 miles to 1 inch. They 
show roads, railroads, rivers, lakes and woods very clearly. 
W r ater is easily the best landmark and next best are the rail¬ 
roads. In preparing for a long flight, the time at which the avi¬ 
ator should be over certain places should be worked out as a 
check on his progress and position. In case of losing the way 


completely the aviator should try and pick up some known landmark 
and readjust his course from this. If caught in rain, snow or fog 
it is unsafe to land unless the location of a safe landing place is 
known and is within easy reach. 

On clear days the extent of view obtained from an aeroplane 
is enormous, but in misty or rainy weather the view of the earth 
is almost completely cut off. 

It is of prime importance that the aviator continually keeps 
in mind the direction of the wind and the position of possible 
landing places as he dies over new country. It is well to know 
that a machine will glide farther down wind than it will against 
the wind. 

A good altitude for cross country work is 3000 feet. This 
may be considerably reduced where good landing places are 
abundant or when flying over water. In mountainous country it 
must be exceeded. 

The art of making forced landings is the cross country flier's 
greatest asset. He should be able to land as easily in a vertical 
spiral as he does on the longest glide; down wind or against the 
wind ; pancake or normal landing. 

When at a safe altitude, the aviator always has time to start 

*/ 

down on an easy circle and it is then that a complete view of the 
panorama can be obtained. Once having decided where to land 
he can adapt the glide to suit conditions. 

A real difficulty exists in estimating the altitude of an aero¬ 
plane when flying over dead smooth water out of sight of land. 
Unless the aviator can find some points, such as floating sticks, 
rocks, birds or ripples on which to focus his vision, his estimate 
is liable to be erroneous. 

It is also well to remember that rough or choppy water is 
very much harder to move over at speed, than rough ground. 
On the other hand it always offers a comparatively safe landing 
place. 

CHOICE OF MACHINE 

The choice of a machine is determined by the uses for which 
it is required and the speed at which it is desired to travel. The 
most popular aeroplanes today are the flying boat, the passenger 
tractor, the passenger pusher and the exhibition model. 

Pilots find that they prefer to fly the same kind of machine 
which they have learned on, as they are more familiar with its 
particular behaviour. However, any well designed and soundly 


built aeroplane turned out by a reputable company can meet the 
general requirements. 

Prospective purchasers should use their discretion and resist 
being tempted to buy low priced aeroplanes. Experience is 
costly, and when incorporated in a first class product, that pro¬ 
duct is entitled to its just reward. 

The flying boat is essentially a water machine and is designed 
to carry two or more people. 

The passenger tractor is primarily an army machine but can 
be modified to suit civilian uses. 

The passenger pusher comes under the same category. 

The exhibition machine forms a class of its own. 

All of these models are excellent for the duties for which they 
are designed. 

CORRECTION FOR DRIFT 

For a drift of Correction in Course 


1 

Mile 

in 

every 

58 

of 

journey 

1 

degree 

1 

4 4 

i i 

4 4 

30 

(i 

t i 

2 

i i 

1 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

20 

i i 

i i 

3 

i i 

1 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

14 

i i 

L L 

4 

<. ( 

1 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

12 

t l 

l i 

5 

< i 

1 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

10 

i i 

( i 

6 

i i 

1 

i 4 

4 4 

4 4 

8 

(i 

i l 

7 

i c 

1 

L 4 

4 4 

4 4 

rr 

/ 

i i 

l C 

8 

i l 

1 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

6 

i i 

l i 

9 

< 4 

1 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

5 

11 

i < 

11 

( i 

1 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

4 

< i 

i l 

14 

i t 

1 

i 4 

4 4 

4 4 

3 

i i 

i i 

18 

i i 

1 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

2 

i < 

( i 

27 

i i 

1 

4 4 

4 4 

4 4 

1 

< i 

l i 

45 

4 4 




RADIUS 

OF VISION 




Height in Feet Distance of Horizon Miles 


500 

30 

Miles 

1000 

42 

4 4 

2000 

591/4 

4 4 

3000 

72y 2 

4 4 

4000 

83% 

4 4 

5000 ' 

931/0 

4 4 

1 Mile 

96 

4 4 


RADIUS OF GLIDE 


(Gliding 

angle 1 in 5) 

Height in Feet 

Distance 

500 

.47 Miles 

1000 

.95 “ 

2000 

1.89 “ 

3000 

2.85 “ 

4000 

3.80 “ 

5000 

4.95 “ 

1 Mile 

5.00 “ 


ALTITUDE AND BAROMETER READING 

(Reading of Barometer at Sealevel assumed to be 30" at 15° C) 
Reading of Barometer Altitude in Feet 


30 

0 

29 

886 

28 

1802 

27 

2753 

26 

3739 

25 

4763 

24 

5830 

23 

6942 

22 

8103 

21 

9319 

20 

10593 

19 

11933 

18 

13346 

17 

14839 

16 

16423 

15 

18109 

14 

19911 


ACCIDENTS—Their Causes and Prevention 

Accidents are either caused through carelessness, reckless¬ 
ness, lack of information, pride or intemperance on the part of the 
aviator, and, to a far less degree by mechanical defects in the con¬ 
struction of the aeroplane. 

Accidents due to the latter cause are almost nonexistent in 
aeroplanes of well known makes at present on the market. It 
must be remembered, that, for the work it is called upon to per¬ 
form, an aeroplane is as strong and in many cases much stronger 
than the best automobiles. 


The greatest number of accidents can be traced to the inabil¬ 
ity or unwillingness of pilots to profit from the experiences and mis¬ 
takes of others. The best aviator is he who forsees all the possibili¬ 
ties of accidents and takes the precaution to guard against them. 
Sush a pilot may not leap immediately into fame and become idol¬ 
ized by the public and thus reap a cheap reward, but eventually he 
is recognized as a thoroughly sound flier in whom the public is ready 
to place confidence. As his experience increases he can easily do 
all the so called sensational dying without attaching an exagger¬ 
ated importance to exploits. 

The key to every aviator’s safety is summed up in this state¬ 
ment : Keep within the limits of personal experience. 

“A wrench was left on the planes and carried into the air,where 
it worked its way back over the planes and struck the propeller, 
breaking this and consequently throwing it out of balance. A 
forced landing had to be made on rough ground resulting in a 
general wreck.” 

“A mechanician had been entrusted to assemble the aeroplane 
and get it ready for a flight. When the aviator arrived on the 
field he omitted to thoroughly inspect the aeroplane and as soon . 
as he left the ground, found that the controls were connected up 
in the reverse direction. A level head enabled him to land without 
damage. ’’ 

“In foot operated controls the slipping off of one foot will 
cause the machine to bank instantly at a steep angle from which 
recovery is impossible if near the ground. Rubber shoes are dan¬ 
gerous if they become oily.” 

“ A man hanging on to the tail in order to hold the machine 
prior to a start, distorted the elevator so that when the machine 
left the ground, it flew canted over to one side.” 

“A bad smash was caused by too much reliance being placed 
in the mechanician ; he left out one of the bolts anchoring the tail 
plane to the outriggers so that when the rudder was used it pulled 
the tail plane out of the outrigger socket, resulting in the aero¬ 
plane ‘stalling’ and side slipping which culminated in a wreck.” 

“In the early days of aviation machines have been broken in 
the air due to the wing covering being literally rotten; the result 
has always been fatal.” 

“The most unpardonable kind of accident has been caused by 
aviators starting on a cross-country flight with a badly running 
motor, in the vain hope that it would improve after it 'got going’. 
To start on such a flight without full power, thereby sacrificing 


some climbing power, and also controlability, is purely and simply 
suicidal.” 

“Fatal accidents have in many instances been caused by do¬ 
ing ‘stunts’ on a machine which was solely intended for straight 
flying. Also by loading such a machine to the limit and then 
making a precipitate descent and a very rapid levelling out prior 
to landing.” 

“Serious accidents have been caused by aviators trying to 
rise out of impossible grounds with a low powered machine.’ 

“Others have been due to aviators being ignorant of the 
nature of the air currents existing in new and unfamiliar country 
and trying to fly in such air with a low powered aeroplane.’ 

“Every one of these accidents could have been avoided had 
«/ 

the fliers been properly and efficiently instructed.” 

The following are a few of the “tight corners” which every 
aviator is bound to get into sooner or later and a word of explan¬ 
ation is necessary: 

Side-Slip: This condition may be produced by over bank 
ing or by a stiff side gust. In either case it causes the machine 
to lose its sustentation and slide sideways toward the ground. 
Recovery to the normal flying attitude can be made by pointing 
the nose of the aeroplane downwards and ruddering away from 
the lower wing. This should only be done if there is sufficient way 
on the machine. In the case where there is a large excess of power 
the aileron on the lower wing can be slightly pulled down to ac¬ 
celerate the recovery. 

Pulling down the aileron through a large angle on an under¬ 
powered machine which is partly “stalled” acts as a brake on 
that wing and aggravates the condition. 

Recovery is also possible by putting the head of the aeroplane 
down and ruddering toward the lower wing; this has the effect 
of immediately increasing the steepness of the bank and finally 
converting the side-slip into a nose dive from which recovery is 
easily made by gently pulling up the elevator. In all of these 
methods a considerable loss of altitude is unavoidable, and there¬ 
fore aviators must never allow their aeroplanes to side-slip near 
the ground. 

Different kinds of machines act in different ways during a 
side-slips. The rules just given, however, hold good for all standard 
aeroplanes. 

In very aggravated cases of side-slip it must be realized that 
the elevator takes the place of the rudder during normal flight 


and the rudder that of the elevator, so that considered from the 
normal flight attitude the functions of these two elements are in¬ 
terchanged. 

If on the other hand the aviator assumes that he is ALWAYS 
in the normal attitude of flight, no matter what position the aero¬ 
plane may be in, then the controls work in their usual capacities 
in order to produce the required results. The latter attitude is 
the one to be cultivated, for then the process of reasoning is not 
hampered by having to think from a new standpoint. 

Stalling: If a machine is stalled near the ground a serious 
smash is bound to be the result. 

If stalled in mid air by a gust or by bad piloting, there is 
always the same chance of recovery as with a side-slip. A ma¬ 
chine with a lifting tail, such as the propeller type, will first slide 
backwards tail first for a short distance, side-slip about as far 
again and then dive head foremost. An aviator is comparatively 
safe at an altitude of 300 feet or over in a lightly loaded machine. 

The tractor type of machine when stalled slides a short way 
backwards and then side-slips and dives. Recovery is made as 
from a side-slip. One thing must be remembered when a machine 
is stalled, namely, that there is not enough way on it for the con¬ 
trols to have any effect. 

Capsizing: An aeroplane may be capsized and left in any 
old position either by a “whirl wind" or by a very stiff gust. 
Under such conditions an aviator’s greatest safety lies in being 
safely strapped to his machine and retaining his presence of mind. 
The first thing to do is to always get the head of the aeroplane 
pointed downward; from this attitude recovery can be made to 
the normal flying attitude. 

There are instances on record where aeroplanes have been 
turned upside down, end for end, tipped up side ways, driven nose 
downward and stalled and in each instance the aviators have suffered 
little or no injury. And here it is to be noted, that there is no 
danger in mid-air when an aeroplane is thrown out of its normal 
flying attitude, provided that the pilot is strapped in and retains 
his presence of mind. The only danger exists when a pilot loses 
control near the ground. M. Pegoud has conclusively demon¬ 
strated that it is possible in any well designed aeroplane to recover 
from any possible position, provided that there is sufficient alti¬ 
tude. 

Turning: When turning from an upwind to a downward di¬ 
rection the machine may have to accelerate from a velocity of 


zero, with regard to the ground, to a velocity of twice the normal 
speed of the aeroplane. During the turn the inertia of the ma¬ 
chine must be overcome and the rate of overcoming this depends 
upon the power and the total weight of the aeroplane. There¬ 
fore the first part of the turn must be commenced in a downward 
direction with full power on and when there is enough way on 
the machine the actual turning can be commenced; the rate of 
turning can be increased as the inertia is overcome. In this man¬ 
oeuvre loss of altitude is inevitable and must be allowed for. 
The sharper the turn, the greater must be the loss of altitude. 

When turning from downward to an upward direction, alti¬ 
tude is gained. 

Either of these manoeuvres must be initiated slowly. In the 
first case inertia must be overcome; in the second momentum 
must be destroyed. Sharp turns should not be attempted on an 
underpowered aeroplane, especially sharp upward turns as this 
manoeuvre will result in “stalling” and end in a “slide-slip.” 

Breakage: In the past there have been instances of portions 
of the wings breaking in mid-air but holding together sufficiently 
to carry the load. Under such conditions the only thing to do is 
to glide to earth at as small an angle as possible and avoid all 
abrupt controlling movement. This manoeuvre is chiefly a war 
manoeuvre; in civilian flying there is no excuse for breakage in 
the air if ordinary precautions are taken. Two FONT'S which 
are violated by inexperienced pilots are: Don’t ever fly a ma¬ 
chine with insecurely fastened, rotted or torn wing fabric. Don’t 
ever fly with a cracked or unbalanced propeller or one on which 
the metal tips are loose. The strains set up by an unbalanced pro¬ 
peller can be severe enough to tear a motor clean out of the fuse¬ 
lage. 


Fire: This can generally be traced to carelessness or fool¬ 
hardiness on the part of aviators. The necessary precautions 
consist in having all unions and valves “locked” throughout the 
gasoline system. 

In event of a valve breaking in the motor, followed by back¬ 
firing through the carburetor, switch off immediately and descend. 
If at any time a forced landing must be made on rough ground 
and a smash is imminent, do not fail to switch off the motor be¬ 
fore reaching the ground. 

Forced Landings: Cross-country fliers must be able to make 
forced landings anywhere under any given conditions. 

The most valuable manoeuvre is the spiral glide, as during 


the first two circles the whole landscape can be observed and the 
best landing place chosen. It is a manoeuvre which must be 
learned progressively and should never be attempted by novices. 
Proceed as follows: After right and left hand turns can be made 
with confidence these can gradually be turned into downward 
turns while keeping the motor running. At first, half circles 
should be attempted and the manoeuvre thought over after each 
attempt. Gradually full turns can be made and then the “bank¬ 
ing” increased. The steepest spiral possible is made in a circle 
of roughly twice the span of the aeroplane and should be at¬ 
tempted oidy by aviators of ripened experience. Much more grad 
ual spirals are sufficient to meet any emergency of a forced land¬ 
ing. 

To initiate a steep spiral on a propeller machine proceed as 
follows: Herfd steeply downward simultaneously banking the 
right wing up steeply by the ailerons. Immediately bring ailerons 
to normal and rudder toward the left wing which will increase the 
bank. Then almost instantly pull the elevator up which now acts 
as the rudder, and the spiral is in progress. (Refer to previous 
remarks on rudder and elevator.) All these movements must be 
made smoothly and consecutively and not abruptly, with the motor 
switched off. During these evolutions the rudder is very sensi¬ 
tive as well as the other controls and the pilot should always feel 
that he is master of the machine and never let it get out of control. 
During such a spiral the aeroplane drops at from 100 to 120 m. p. 
h., and good judgment must be used in landing. 

When landing on ploughed ground, if possible, always land 
parallel to the furrows and. “pancake” if necessary. On rough 
or muddy ground, sand soil or fields of wheat, etc., always “pan¬ 
cake” and pick the furrows if possible. If forced to land on top 
of a forest, pick a good dense cluster of trees and “pancake” so 
that the last 10 feet is a vertical drop. 

If a forced landing is made in water with a land machine, try 
and reach the shore and then “pancake” into the water a few 
feet from land. If out of reach of land the machine will float for 
a considerable time if neatly “pancaked”. 

All landings in windy weather should always be made at a good 
speed and against the wind, if possible under power. 

Stopping: If a landing has been made in a small space and 
the speed of the machine is insufficiently checked so that there is 
danger of a collision, it may be considerably slowed by depressing 
the tail fully so that the rear end of the skids dig into the ground. 


If there is not room for this, put the ailerons and rudder hard 
over for a sharp turn at the same time pulling up the elevator. 
If the speed of the machine is such that the controls have lost the 
greater part of their effect, full power can be switched on to help 
the machine around and here the greatest care and discretion must 
be used and the motor switched off immediately if it is not pro¬ 
ducing the required effect. This is a very drastic manoeuvre and 
culminates in some breakage, generally to the running gear. 

Straps: The chief occasion on which straps are of service is 
when flying in gusty and treacherous weather in either a tractor 
or a propeller type of machine. It is generally thought safer to 
remain strapped in when flying a tractor and only to use the straps 
during flight on a propeller machine. In the latter case the pilot 
is better off if thrown clear of the machine in case of a smash. 












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